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New research highlights a persistent gender gap in rates of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and survival after cardiac arrest, with women significantly less likely than men to receive lifesaving intervention.
A large-scale analysis from Duke University found that women were 14% less likely to receive bystander CPR or defibrillation compared with men, even after adjusting for neighbourhood and demographic factors (Blewer et al., 2024). This finding aligns with earlier work showing that in the United Kingdom, only 68% of women experiencing cardiac arrest received bystander CPR, compared with 73% of men (Blom et al., 2019).
Social and cultural discomfort about touching a woman’s chest is often cited as a key reason for hesitation among bystanders. Studies suggest that this reluctance is reinforced by a long-standing gender bias in CPR training. A 2024 analysis found that 95% of commercially available CPR manikins are flat-chested, with only one model including realistic breast features (Szabo et al., 2024). This lack of anatomical accuracy limits the realism of training scenarios and may foster unconscious bias during real emergencies.
The survival implications are substantial. A systematic review of international data confirmed that women have consistently lower out-of-hospital survival rates than men, although outcomes vary by region and setting (Lakbar et al., 2022). Experts argue that the omission of female anatomy from CPR training may play an indirect but important role in this disparity.
Evidence also points to a straightforward intervention. A study published in JEMS reported that when silicone breast adjuncts were attached to manikins, participants were almost twice as likely to report comfort performing CPR on women (Kim et al., 2023). Researchers conclude that breast-inclusive training tools could help normalise correct hand placement, improve bystander confidence, and ultimately save more women’s lives.
The growing body of evidence calls for urgent reform in CPR education, ensuring that all bodies are represented in training resources and public awareness campaigns. As Szabo et al. (2024) note, “CPR training is not only a clinical issue, but a gender and rights-based healthcare issue.”
References
- Blewer, A. L., Starks, M. A., Malta-Hansen, C., et al. (2024). Sex differences in receipt of bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation considering neighbourhood racial and ethnic composition. Journal of the American Heart Association, 13, e031113.
- Blom, M. T., Oving, I., Berdowski, J., van Valkengoed, I. G. M., Bardai, A., & Tan, H. L. (2019). Women have lower chances than men to be resuscitated and survive out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. European Heart Journal, 40(47), 3824–3834. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehz297
- Lakbar, I., Ippolito, M., Nassiri, A., Delamarre, L., Tadger, P., Leone, M., & Einav, S. (2022). Sex and out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survival: a systematic review. Annals of Intensive Care, 12, 114. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13613-022-01091-9
- Szabo, R. A., Forrest, K., Morley, P., Barwick, S., Bajaj, K., Britt, K., Yong, S. A., Park-Ross, J., Story, D., & Stokes-Parish, J. (2024). CPR training as a gender and rights-based healthcare issue. Health Promotion International. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daae156
- Kim, R. T., Liu, S. C., Schipper, A. E., Sloane, C. S. M., Shimelis, L., Faber, D. A., Zou, R., Wang, E., et al. (2023, October 26). Implementation of a breast adjunct for CPR training manikins increased reported comfort in performing CPR on women. Journal of Emergency Medical Services (JEMS).
The meanings of “Left-Leaning,” “Left Wing,” “Far Left,” and “Extreme Far Left”
In contemporary British politics, the terms left-leaning, left wing, far left, and extreme far left represent successive degrees of ideological distance from the political centre. Each reflects distinct attitudes toward capitalism, the state, and social reform, yet their boundaries are porous and context dependent (Bale et al., 2023).
Left-Leaning and Left Wing
“Left-leaning” or “left-wing” actors typically support a mixed economy, redistribution through progressive taxation, and a strong welfare state, but accept liberal democratic institutions and private enterprise (Evans, 2021). In the UK, the Labour Party is the principal expression of this position. Under Keir Starmer, Labour’s economic platform has emphasised fiscal responsibility combined with commitments to strengthen workers’ rights and public services (Labour Party, 2024). Think-tanks such as the Fabian Society exemplify the gradualist and reformist strain of British social democracy, seeking “social justice through democratic means” (Fabian Society, n.d.).
Far Left
The far left identifies more directly with anti-capitalist and revolutionary traditions, drawing on Marxist, Trotskyist, and anarchist thought (March, 2011). Rather than reforming capitalism, these movements typically call for its replacement with systems of common ownership and worker control. UK organisations in this category include the Socialist Workers Party (SWP), the Socialist Party of England and Wales, and the Communist Party of Britain (CPB). These groups remain electorally marginal but maintain influence in trade-union activism and protest movements (BBC News, 2023).
Public figures sometimes aligned with far-left positions include former Labour MPs Jeremy Corbyn and John McDonnell, whose advocacy for public ownership of utilities and opposition to NATO interventionism placed them to the left of the party mainstream (Guardian, 2023). Extra-parliamentary formations such as Left Unity, founded in 2013 under the encouragement of filmmaker Ken Loach, also occupy this ideological space (Left Unity, n.d.).
Extreme Far Left
The term extreme far left is most often employed in security or counter-extremism discourse rather than academic analysis. It denotes groups that reject liberal democracy entirely and may condone or employ violence for political ends. The UK Government’s Contest strategy identifies Left-Wing, Anarchist and Single-Issue Terrorism (LASIT) as a monitoring category within domestic extremism (Home Office, 2023). Historically, the “Angry Brigade” of the early 1970s is cited as an example of violent far-left activism in Britain (BBC Archive, 2022). Contemporary research, however, indicates that left-wing extremist threats in the UK are minimal compared with those from the far right (Institute for Strategic Dialogue [ISD], 2022).
Discussion
Scholars caution that media and political rhetoric often collapse these distinctions, using “far left” as a pejorative for any radical dissent (Allington et al., 2019). Analytical precision requires differentiating between radical actors—who may seek profound systemic change through peaceful means—and extremist actors who legitimise coercion or violence (ISD, 2022). Within the UK context, “left-leaning” generally refers to reformist social democracy; “left wing” to stronger redistributive advocacy within the same democratic framework; “far left” to revolutionary socialism and anti-capitalism; and “extreme far left” to the narrow set of actors prepared to use undemocratic or violent tactics.
References
Allington, D., McAndrew, S., & Hirsh, D. (2019). The sectarian far left and antisemitism: An exploration of the connections. UK Home Office. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/834429/Allington-McAndrew-Hirsh-2019-Jul-19.pdf
Bale, T., Webb, P., & Poletti, M. (2023). The British general election of 2019. Palgrave Macmillan.
BBC Archive. (2022, August 3). The Angry Brigade: Britain’s forgotten bombers. https://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/angry-brigade/z9v6gwx
BBC News. (2023, November 14). Who are Britain’s far-left groups? https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-67389329
Evans, G. (2021). Political ideology in contemporary Britain. Oxford University Press.
Fabian Society. (n.d.). About us. https://fabians.org.uk/about-us/
Guardian. (2023, July 25). Jeremy Corbyn plans new left-wing party. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2023/jul/25/jeremy-corbyn-new-left-wing-party
Home Office. (2023). Contest: The United Kingdom’s strategy for countering terrorism (2023 Refresh). https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/contest-uk-strategy-for-countering-terrorism
Institute for Strategic Dialogue (ISD). (2022). Left-wing extremism in the UK: Threat overview. https://www.isdglobal.org/explainers/left-wing-extremism/
Labour Party. (2024). Our mission for a fairer, greener Britain. https://labour.org.uk/manifesto
Left Unity. (n.d.). About Left Unity. https://leftunity.org/about
March, L. (2011). Radical left parties in Europe. Routledge.